International Finance Assessment Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

International Finance Assessment - Case Study Example When a firm operates only in the domestic market, both for procuring inputs as well as selling its output, it needs to deal only in the domestic currency. As companies try to increase their international presence, either by undertaking international trade or by establishing operations in foreign countries, they start dealing with people and firms in various nations. Since different countries have different domestic currencies, the question arises as to which currency the trade should be settled in. The settlement currency may either be the domestic currency of one of the parties to the trade, or may be an internationally accepted currency. In this case, Rolls-Royce has agreed on a dollar as the currency for settlement. The mechanism by which the exchange rate between these currencies i.e. the value of one currency in terms of another currency is determined, along with the level and the variability of the exchange rates, can have profound effect on the sales, cost and profits of a fir m. The change in the value of currencies takes place because of the change in the demand for holding that particular currency. The businesses may be affected in a number of ways because of the changing exchange rate. Some of them are as follows: Exchange rates may be of different types like fixed exchange rate, floating exchange rate and also exchange rates with limited flexibility. Different kinds of exchange rate systems have different methods of correcting the disequilibrium between international payments and receipts. This actually is one of the basic functions of these mechanisms. Fixed Exchange Rate System - As the name suggests, under a fixed or pegged exchange rate system the value of a currency in terms of another is fixed. These rates are determined by governments or the central banks of the respective countries. The fixed exchange rates result from countries pegging their currencies to either some common commodity or to some particular currency. There is generally some provision for correction of these fixed rates in case of a fundamental disequilibrium. The Gold Standard System and the Breton Woods System are some of the examples of Fixed Exchange Rate System. There are also particular variations of the fixed rate system like: Currency Board System - Under this system, a country fixes the rate of its domestic currency in terms of a foreign currency, and its exchange rate in terms of other currencies depends on the exchange rates between the other currencies and the currency to which the domestic currency is pegged. The biggest advantage of a currency board system is that it offers stable exchange rates, which act as an incentive for international trade and investment. The discipline enforced on the government and the financial system also helps in improving the macroeconomic fundamentals in the long run. Target Zone Arrangement - A target zone arrangement is system in which a group of countries sometimes get together, and agree to maintain the exchange rat

College Application Essay Example for Free

College Application Essay At some point in our lives, we all have one significant experience that can affect us. Whether this experience is big or small, it still happened and made its impact on you. I remember when I first pushed myself to do something that pushed me out of my comfort zone and do more during that time period. That something was to be better than my siblings and be more successful than they were. My older brother and sister were good kids, but never did what they said they were going to do after high school. My sister had wanted to be a nursing assistant for the longest time and my brother had wanted to be a lawyer. Although my sister wasn’t the smartest in school she still passed and graduated with her class, but did not go to college. My brother on the other hand had a different path to become a lawyer, which he could have with his grades, but did not. He decided to enlist in the military and hoped to go to school afterwards. Although he had planned it all out, he didn’t follow it. Instead a tragedy struck him while in the military and is now discharged medically and only working a part time job. Of course I don’t believe the military is a bad job at all and I believe that if things happened differently for him his life would be different now. Today he is still undecided when and where he wants to attend college. My older siblings always told me high school would be different and harder than the smaller elementary and middle schools. I knew this but I didn’t mind because I knew that I had wanted to excel in school to do something successful afterwards. I didn’t just want to be more successful than my siblings but it made me realize that if you don’t drive yourself to work hard in school you don’t always achieve what you want to do. By pushing myself harder in school I’ve made an effect on myself that has put me in a great position throughout my years of high school. Through high school I’ve had the privilege of being able to take high honor classes and even college classes that have allowed me to be ahead of the game. But in order to be ahead of the game I have had to study hard, do my homework and pay attention closely to the classes that I have taken. I believe within my four years of high school I have achieved so much more than my siblings all from great teachers and other role models in my life teaching me various things. Even throughout these times it has been some stressful days and weeks I still was calm and handled everything in a well-timed manner. Therefore, I have been able to push myself one step closer to what I want to do and it has  encouraged me greatly so I can see what I may do soon in the future. My risk to go out of my comfort zone and put more pressure on my shoulders has been a great deal for me. I hope that me pushing myself to do harder and better work throughout high school helps me in my later future studies and work.

Is Obamas Strategic Nuclear Arms Control Policy Sound Politics Essay

Is Obamas Strategic Nuclear Arms Control Policy Sound Politics Essay Since the day Hiroshima and Nagasaki were hit by the first and only nuclear bomb to ever be used in the world history, world countries understood the evil implications of such weapons. From that moment, nations have been trying to sustain the stability of those mass destruction weapons through organizations, treaties, systems, etc. that have dated back to 1946. One of the most influential people who work hard with regards to solving such problems is President Barak Obama. Obama has been working on this issue since he took over presidency due to the serious problems between the U.S. and Russia regarding this subject from the times of President Bush. Nevertheless, Obamas real motivation came when North Koreas launched a long-range rocket that could be used as a missile. Therefore he gave a speech in Prague calling for a nuclear-free world. President Obama pledged that the U.S. will reduce its nuclear stocks within the next four years. Moreover, he assured the public that the U.S. will also strengthen the nuclear nonproliferation treaty, and penalize any countries that attempt to violate the rules or laws established in the treaty. This is why, in the year of 2010, a year from his speech, President Obamas administration settled particular standards. Thus the Nuclear Posture Review was released, in which the objectives that President Obama wanted to fulfill were met. President Obama identified the Nuclear Posture Review as a method that will prohibit nuclear proliferation, prevent the use and distribution of nuclear arms, and reduce the possibility of the formation of nuclear terrorism. Nonetheless, the Nuclear Posture Review was considered very controversial worldwide. Even though the U.S, one of the worlds superpowers, issued the review, it was being opposed by many nations that believed it to be a utopian dream that will never be realized. In this essay, I am going to be discussing the negative effects that nuclear proliferation has on society. Also, I am going to examine the efforts President Obama exerted towards seeking a solution for this matter. In addition to that, I will note all the progress President Obama accomplished throughout his campaign, and all the barriers he had to overcome to reach where we are at now. On the other hand, I will mention how the world reacted to such a policy and whether or not they decided to adopt it. Finally, I will be discussing whether or not this arm control policy is sound and sufficient. Introduction: Nuclear proliferation is a term used to describe the spread of nuclear weapons. There are two types of proliferations. The first is vertical proliferation, which refers to the increase in the number of stockpiles of nuclear weapons, improving the technical sophistication or reliability of weapons, or developing new weapons through research programs in states that already possess nuclear weaponry. The second type of proliferation is horizontal proliferation, which refers to nation-states or non-state entities that do not have proliferation system, but are acquiring nuclear weapons or developing the capability and materials for producing nuclear weapons through research programs. After the First atomic bomb was used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, world countries knew that a divinely dreadful power was unleashed. Therefore, countries started to cooperate together, to place restrain orders on nuclear weapons and on the nations who posses them. As early as 1946, the organization now known as the International Atomic Energy Agency was established to limit the use of nuclear energy to peaceful purposes only. However, the effort to constrain nuclear arms has been a rather slow progress throughout the 1960s; the period of the cold war between the U.S. and Soviet Union. During the cold war people lived with the knowledge that their world could be erased in a single flash of light by a nuclear war. However, we are now in the 21st century, and the cold war has come to an end. Nevertheless, the risk of a nuclear attack has gone up since thousands of the weapons used back then still didnt disappear. Also, more and more nations have acquired those weapons, and have the knowledge to build even more nuclear bombs. Hence, although there is an existing global non-proliferation regime, many nations still violate the rules. Also, the fact that terrorist nowadays want to buy, build, or steal those weapons is affecting the security of the nation and peace of the world, and in return, affecting the world high politics. President Obama understands that these weapons are the ultimate tools of destruction. For no matter were an explosion occurs there is no end to its consequences. Since the U.S. is the only nuclear power to have ever used a nuclear weapon, President Obama believes that his country has a moral obligation to act upon and stop this phenomenon. He wants nations to join together and work towards a world without nuclear proliferation. To do so, he is leading a regime that aims for peace and security in our world! This strategy needs patience, persistence, and commitment to become a reality. Thus, President Obamas commitment is seen; I am standing for the right of people everywhere to live free from fear (YouTube Contributors, 2009). Chapter One: President Obama Calls for Reduction in Nuclear Arms On Sunday April 5th 2009, in Prague, President Obama launched an effort that would aid the world to make nuclear weapons obsolete, calling them the most dangerous legacies of the Cold War (YouTube Contributors, 2009). In his speech, Obama considered this strategy the aim of the 21st century. Thus, he urged nations to get rid of their nuclear weapons and stop researching and developing new types of nuclear weapons and means of warhead delivery. He also encouraged an end to Cold War thinking and promised to reduce the nuclear stocks in U.S. within the next four years. The choice of Prague for such a speech carried strong symbolism, and President Obama didnt ignore it. Decades of communism were toppled in Czechoslovakia through the 1989 Velvet Revolution. Thus, President Obama praised the Czechs for helping bring down a nuclear-armed empire without firing a shot. President Obamas speech was mainly driven by North Koreas launching of a long-range rocket in defiance to the international community, which took place earlier that day. Since the launching process was widely condemned by the U.S. and international officials. During his speech, President Obama targeted his comments at one point directly at North Korea, and declared that North Korea broke the rules by testing a rocket that could be used as a long-range missile. Such a launch emphasizes the urgency of the denuclearization agenda. Hence, President Obama pledged to work with partners for the denuclearization of North Korea at a summit with leaders of the European Union in which President Obama called for a swift and joint statement condemning North Koreas actions. Moreover, President Obama addressed another potential nuclear issue in his speech. He warned Iran and presented it with a clear choice to join in the community of nations and earn its right to peaceful nuclear energy, on the condition that it ceases its nuclear and ballistic missile activity. Otherwise, it may continue to refuse to meet its international obligations and face increased isolation. He also mentioned that the U.S. would proceed with development of a missile defense system in Europe as long as there is an Iranian threat of developing nuclear weapons. Once that threat is removed, he promised that the driving force for missile defense in Europe would be removed. However, this issue remains a very sore point between Russia and the U.S. since they are not in full agreement on what to do about the existing nuclear weapons in North Korea and the potential nuclear weapons in Iran, especially since Russia is being lenient with Irans nuclear program. On the other hand, President Obama coupled his call for a nuclear-free world with an assurance that the U.S. would not individually give up its nuclear weapons. President Obama also outlined several concrete steps toward a nuclear-free world. One of which was ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban on testing nuclear weapons, which the U.S. would aggressively seek, and called for a global effort to secure nuclear material. He also noted that the U.S. would host a summit within the next year on reducing and eventually eliminating nuclear weapons! However, The U.S. would still need major help form all the nations worldwide to reach such goal. Additionally, President Obama reinforced his speech by mentioning that he signed an agreement to begin negotiating in Moscow, a new Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty to reduce warheads and stockpiles with his Russian counterpart, President Dmitry Medvedev. The treaty, which will take place at the end of the year, aims for cutting their respective nuclear arsenals to 1,500 each. President Obama also discussed the solutions that will include preventing the production of more nuclear weapons, and seeking a new treaty. Such a treaty will terminate the manufacturing of fissile materials used in nuclear arms, thus diminishing the purpose of nuclear arms in the American national security strategy, negotiating a new international treaty, and strengthening the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. President Obama promised that the U.S. would seek strengthening the nuclear nonproliferation treaty by providing more resources and authority for international inspections and mandating. Since, any country that would violate the rules of the treaty would face real and immediate consequences, including automatic referral to the UN Security Council. At the end of his speech, President Obama addressed people who argue that the spread of these weapons cannot be stopped, and that human-kind are destined to live in a world where more nations and people possess the ultimate tools of destruction, stating that Such fatalism is a deadly adversary. For if we believe that the spread of nuclear weapons is inevitable, then we are admitting to ourselves that the use of nuclear weapons is inevitable (YouTube Contributors, 2009). Chapter Two: President Obamas Nuclear Posture Review Former government officials, nuclear weapons experts, and leaders of arms control organizations representing more than one million Americans have sent a letter to the President, urging him to fulfill his April 2009 pledge to put an end to Cold War thinking and reduce the role of nuclear weapons in our national security strategy (YouTube Contributors, 2009). In the letter sent to the White House on February 1sr 2010, the group called on the president to ensure that the new policy advances the highest security priorities, such as preventing terrorists or additional states from obtaining nuclear weapons, reducing global stockpiles, and moving toward a world without nuclear weapons. However, in 2010, a year from his speech, and after much internal wrangling, President Obamas administration has settled on a clever and well-prepared standard, thus releasing the Nuclear Posture Review, which is a legislatively mandated review that determines U.S. nuclear strategy, policy, force posture, and capabilities for the next few years. It is consisted of 72 pages that review the program, and help the public understand some of its finer points and details. The review has policies that meet the objectives President Obama wants to accomplish. Thus it is consistent with President Obamas commitment to listen, learn and lead. Additionally, The Nuclear Posture Review also explains how the United States will sustain a safe, secure and effective nuclear deterrent for the United States and its allies as long as nuclear weapons exist. While the Nuclear Posture Review was meant to inform the debate on NATO nuclear policy, it does not explicitly address the subject. In fact, the Nuclear Posture Review states, any changes in NATOs nuclear posture should only be taken after a thorough review within and decision by the Alliance. The United States is considering basing the future of nuclear arms in Europe, and is committed to making the majority of their decisions through the use of the NATO processes. Nevertheless, the  Nuclear Posture Review states that the U.S. is now set to reinforce its long-standing negative security assurance by implying that the U.S. would not use or threaten to use nuclear arms against nations that lack nuclear weapons, and non-nuclear weapons nations that are part of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and are obedient to their nuclear non-proliferation obligations, which they have remained in compliance with. Thus, this studied declaration is intended to highlight the security benefits of fully adhering and complying with the NPT and encourage non-nuclear weapon states party to the Treaty to cooperate with the U.S. other interested parties to adopt applicable measures to strengthen the non-proliferation regime. However, The U.S. has the right and will only consider attacking or threatening a country if it develops significant chemical, biological, or conventional weapons that pose a threat to the U.S. or its allies. This part of the treaty actually assures other countries that they should always be inferior to the U.S. militarily and returns everyone to square of the arms race among countries. The  Nuclear Posture Review also leads to the removal of an entire class of nuclear weapons distribution systems The Nuclear-Armed Tomahawk from the arsenal. And called for further Russian and American nuclear arms reductions. On the other hand, President Obama identifies the Nuclear Posture Review as a method that prohibits the use of nuclear proliferation, and nuclear arms, and reduces the potential of the acquisition of nuclear weapons or the materials and knowledge by individuals or non-state entities, often termed terrorists, to produce nuclear weapons. Stating that the latter point is the most urgent priority, especially that the technology needed to construct a nuclear weapon has been known, and is being rabidly spread between nations. Thus, terrorists could build their own nuclear weaponry, which would threaten global safety and well-being. All in all, President Obamas new review restricts the role of nuclear weapons in the U.S. security strategy, and shifts both the U.S. and Russia towards a more stable strategic connection at lower levels of nuclear arms. The review is framed to support action for the immediate next steps with regards to a world without nuclear weapons, which were outlined in his Prague speech; the strengthening of the NPT, the entry by force of the CTBT, the accelerated action in order to secure nuclear weapons-usable material, and the conclusion of a new strategic weaponry treaty. Chapter Three: International Responses Domestically, the concept of the Russian and U.S. post-Strategic Arms Reduction Talks to decrease the number of launchers in both countries to 1500 each, were rather refuted by U.S. officials. Particularly because it was a smart move from Russias side, that is unfair to the U.S. Especially because the Russian Launchers will drop significantly within 8-9 years from 680 launchers to 270 launchers, simply as a result of aging and expiring of the system! Therefore, military leaders stated that President Obama should be very careful about moving towards a low launcher numbers strategy because it would provide major advantages for the Russian Federation, but major disadvantages for U.S. strategy. Some experts believe that it is possible to completely eradicate nuclear weapons, and such a program that will drastically cut the worlds negative atomic arsenal carries support from scientists worldwide. Also, a recent examination that conducted by researchers from all around the world was issued as a special of  The Nonproliferation Review on key foreign governments responses to the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review, proved that contrary to the popular belief, President Obamas policy considerably influenced a number of countries nuclear diplomatic doctrines, and produced significant progress toward a safer nuclear world. An example was Russias nuclear doctrine. Which was revised to allow nuclear options only in the case of which they are used in response to attacks that threaten the existence of their state. Moreover, at last years NATO summit in Lisbon, NATO governments settled to address concern by offering to negotiate with the Russian government for reductions or elimination of sub -strategic nuclear weapons in an upcoming arms-control agreement. Perhaps the primary short-term achievement of President Obamas new policy was that it stopped the erosion of the 2005 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, yet later on suffered an unfortunate hindrance when the international community was unable to reach an agreement that was in favor of the nonproliferation regime. This failure was blamed on the Bush administration by numerous nations. By contrast, at the May 2010 NPT Review Conference, the signatories to the treaty welcomed the reductions announced by some nuclear weapons states, praised new and improved International Atomic Energy Agency safeguard inspection protocols, and underscored the importance of international discussions on multilateral control of sensitive nuclear fuel facilities. One political scientist reported  that this outcome would not have been imaginable if it not for President Obamas open-mindedness regarding the aim towards a nuclear-free world, and the implementation of a nuclear stance that helped US move towards acheiving that objective. On the other Hand, Some overseas governments such as India and China still view the new posture with skepticism, and its statements about nuclear weapons reduction as a mere rhetoric. Accordingly, Chinese officials expressed concerns  that in the future, conventional weaponry enhancements might make the U.S. more likely to threaten China. Moreover, an Indian commentator called  the new U.S. doctrine more posture than review. However, that kind of reaction was only encouraged when U.S. officials strayed from President Obamas declared policy. Also, former President Chilton insisted that future generations would depend on nuclear arms for the survival of the U.S. A phrasing that is deeply inconsistent with President Obamas stated goal. Thus, it is critical that the President Obamas administration maintain high discipline within the military and government bureaucracy concerning this issue. In the run-up to 2010 Senate ratification of New START, President Obamas administration ordered an increases in financial-banking for the nations nuclear laboratories in order for them to preserve the safety and reliability of the U.S. nuclear arsenal without nuclear testing in the future. This program added integrity to President Obamas frequent declarations that the U.S. requires a nuclear deterrent as long as other states have nuclear weapons. I also think that in order to further enhance the credibility of President Obamas pledge to work towards creating a world free of nuclear arms, the administration should also demand further diminutions in U.S. nuclear arms beyond those enforced by the New START agreement. Conclusion In conclusion, we can see that the world is obviously facing a growing threat from nuclear proliferation and nuclear terrorism, and President Obama is one of the few influential people that decided to adopt this security dilemma, and attempted to fix it. However, I personally think that this could not be a one-man-show since such a strategy needs to be supported worldwide, especially by countries that posses those weapons. Therefore, nations must recognize that nonproliferation is a two-way street, and that progress can only be achieved by a truly global coalition. Hence, a noticeable success in preventing further nuclear proliferation would require building bonds and links between countries to maximize cooperation. Also, such an aim would take an extended period of time to be realized. Thus making it a long-term goal that countries should join hands to achieve. Hence, I think that in the meantime nations should seek to reduce the numbers of nuclear weapons, yet not eliminate them completely since this gives the U.S. a sense of security; knowing that if invader attacked, they would have sufficient resources to defend themselves. Indeed, every country is opting for peace in the world. However, some might privately have weapons stored, waiting for the right opportunity to exploit first world countries, and be considered a superpower. Hence, the greed and thrive for power is also considered a major barrier in the way of President Obamas strategy. Countries are selfish, and place their own needs and well-being above anything else, thus preventing them from thinking straight and cooperating with others to achieve what is best for global welfare. Finally, it can be noticed that President Obamas Prague speech aimed high, but the Nuclear Posture Review leaves the U.S. nuclear policy at square one. All in all, I think Obamas strategy is not sufficient enough for eliminating nuclear threats since there is no guarantee that countries will want to follow in the footsteps of the U.S. and In order to fully realize the promise of a world without nuclear weapons, President Obama and his team must do more to change outdated Cold War thinking and reduce the U.Ss reliance on nuclear weapons. Nonetheless, we should praise President Obama for his continuous efforts and time spent trying to solve this dilemma. President Obamas strategy is a major step, paving the road to a world without nuclear weapons.

Baseball at The University of Florida :: Sports Perry Field McKethan Stadium Essays

Baseball at The University of Florida While being recruited by various colleges for baseball, I had to decide on a program with a great athletic, academic, and fan supported background. I chose the University of Florida because of their great athletic success in the past ten years and all of their well-equipped facilities. I never took a recruiting visit to the University of Florida, so when I first arrived to Gainesville and saw the baseball field for the first time I was amazed. The field looked as if it were a professional stadium. Whether you enjoy watching baseball or not, there is always something interesting happening at the ballpark. There are usually media personal conducting interviews, or fresh peanuts are being roasted, or a father and son are having a catch on the side of the field. Students also gather here and study or just hang out. Just as many people know, baseball is â€Å"America’s pastime† and the ballpark is where a family can come together, socialize, and have fun. The ballpark, also known as McKethan Stadium/Perry Field, is located in between the O’Connel center and the soccer field/track. To gain entrance into the field, there are two large glass doors for athletes to enter through captured in picture #1. This leads towards the locker rooms, dugouts, and trainer’s room. Fans are prohibited from entering these doors, which is blocked off by security guards during games. This gives a sense of feeling that even college athletes are protected like professionals. Fans enter the stadium on a ramp towards the bleachers past the box office. This keeps the fans under control and away from the athletes. The outskirt of the stadium’s landscape brings on a sense of beauty and security. A 6-foot metal fence encloses the stadium. Beyond the fence there are large palm trees and shrubbery surrounding the batting cages. This is illustrated in picture #2. The fence and plants serve as a way to keep non-ticket holders out of the stadium. This gives the field a sense of security. Because of the stadium’s location in the middle of the campus, it is easy access for anyone to attend games. Across the street from the stadium are apartment-like dorms where students can watch the games from their window.

Nisbett Summary Essay

Main Points: Evidence shows that there may be little or no direct introspective access to higher order cognitive processes. Subjects are sometimes (a.) unaware of the existence of a stimulus that importantly influenced a response, (b) unaware of the existence of the response and (c) unaware that the stimulus has affected the response. It is proposed that when people attempt to report on their cognitive processes, they do not do so based on any true introspection. Their reports are based on a priori, implicit casual theories or judgments about the extent to which a particular stimulus is a plausible cause of a given response. Although the evidence points that people are unable to use introspection in respect to cognitive processes, they may sometimes be able to report accurately about them. Accurate reports will occur when influential stimuli are salient and plausible causes of the responses they produce. Notes: * Social psychologists routinely ask subjects in their experiments why they behaved as they did (i.e., why did you choose that graduate school) * Mandler, Miller and Neisser proposed that people may have no direct access to higher order mental processes, such as used in evaluating judgment, problem solving and behavior * Problems with new anti-introspectivist view: (1) Mandler, Miller and Neisser never stated that people have no direct access to higher order mental processes. Instead, the speculation is not based on research on higher order processes, such as â€Å"thinking,† but rather research on more basic processes of perception and memory. There is no conscious awareness of perceptual and memorial processes. (2) People readily answer questions about the reasons for his behavior or evaluations. Subjects usually appear stumped when asked about perceptual or memorial processes, but are quite able to describe why they behaved in such a manner or why they dislike a person. The refore, it would appear like people have some introspective access to a memory or the process involved. (3) The anti-introspectivist view does not allow for the possibility that people are ever correct about their higher order mental processes (intuitively unlikely that such reports are ALWAYS inaccurate). * Much of the evidence that casts doubt on the ability of people to report on their cognitive processes comes from a consideration of what was not published in that literature. A review of the nonpublic research leads to three conclusions: (1) subjects frequently cannot report on the existence of the chief response that was produced by the manipulation (2) even if they can report the existence of the responses, they do not report that a change process (evaluational or attitudinal response underwent any alterations) occurred (3) subjects cannot correctly identify the stimuli that produced the response. * Insufficient justification or dissonance research states if the behavior is intrinsically undesirable will, when performed for inadequate extrinsic reasons, be seen as more attractive if done for adequate reasons. For example, if people have done something unpleasant without adequate justification, it becomes painful – therefore, people will revise his opinion about the behavior in order to avoid the psychic discomfort * Attribution theory – people strive to discover the causes of attitudinal, emotional and behavioral responses (their own and others) and the resulting casual attributions are a chief determinant of a host of additional attitudinal and behavioral effects. For example, if someone tells us that he likes a horror film, our acceptance of the opinion is based on our causal analysis of the persons’ reasons for the evaluation – does he like movies, does he normally like horror films, etc. Insufficient-justification studies and attribution studies where the subject makes inferences about himself have employed behavioral dependent variables. Two studies are discussed, one regarding painful electric shocks and the other with snake-phobic subjects. In the one with the electric shocks, patients were subject to shocks and asked to learn a task. Those with insufficient justification justified taking the shots, by deciding that they were not that painful, so their evaluation of the painfulness of the shots was lowered and their physiological and behavioral indicators reflected this indication. In the second study, subjects underwent the attribution paradigm in which snake-phobic subjects were exposed to slides of snakes and a second slide that stated â€Å"shock† in which they were electrically shocked. As a result, the subjects learned that they were frightened of the shock slide because of the electric shock that accompanied it, but not frightened of the snake slides and realized that they may not be as afraid of snakes as they thought. They were armed with a new self-attribution of snake fearlessness. * Verbal stimuli in the form of instructions from the experimenter can result in a changed evaluation of the relevant stimuli and an altered motivational state, which are reflected in subsequent physiological and behav ioral events. Stimuli => cognitive process => evaluative and motivational state change => behavior change * There is a problem with the assumption that the subject consciously decides how he feels about an object and this evaluation determines his behavior towards it. Typically, behavioral and physiological differences are obtained in the absence of verbally reported differences in evaluations or motive states. * Three generalizations made about the electric shock and snake-phobic studies are: * No significant verbal report differences were found at all. * The behavioral effects were in most cases stronger than the verbal report effects * The correlation between verbal report about motive state and behavioral measures of motive state was found to be zero. Negative/zero correlation are difficult to understand/interpret in terms of the cognitive process involved. * Results from studies confounded the assumption that conscious, verbal cognitive processes result in conscious, verbalizable changes in evaluations or motive states which then mediate changed behavior. * Author provides evidence that casts doubt on the studies that find differences in the verbal reports of experimental and control subjects. There is an important difference between awareness of the existence of an evaluation (does not imply true recognition of the process induced by insufficient justification and attribution manipulations – they are not aware that a change has taken place in consequence of such manipulations) and awareness of a changed evaluation or motive state. An experiment was done in which people had to write essays opposing their own views. Subjects who were coerced into writing essays showed no change in evaluation of the topic. Those who were given insufficient justification or manipulated shifted their evaluations in the direction of the position they originally opposed. However, those who were given insufficient justification or manipulation reported that their attitudes towards the subject were no different after the essay than they were one week prior-this suggests that they were unaware that the evaluation has changed. * Thought process – a study is described in which a control group was subjected to electric shocks while the experimental group was given a placebo pill that reportedly helped with the electric shocks. The experimental group was able to take more shock. After the study, 9 out of 12 subjects stated that the pill did not cause some physical effects and that they were only worried about the shock. * The explanations that subjects offer for their behavior in insufficient-justification and attribution experiments are so removed from the processes that investigators doubt there is direct access to higher level cognitive processes. * Results of insufficient justification experiments could never be obtained if subjects were aware of the critical role played by the social pressure from the experimenter. If subjects realized that their behavior was produced by this social pressure, they would not change their attitudes. If people were aware of position effects on their evaluations, they would attempt to overcome these effects or counteract the influence (i.e., see below about helping someone in distress with many people around – may be more willing to help someone knowing that naturally people are less likely to help others with more people around). * The theory that people can respond to a stimulus in the absence of the ability to verbally report on its existence is more widely accepted now than years before. The new acceptance is due to (1) methodological innovations in the form chiefly of signal detection techniques and dichotic listening procedures and (2) persuasive theoretical arguments in regards to deriving the subliminal perception phenomenon from the notion of selective attention and filtering. An experiment was done regarding playing tone sequences into an attended and unattended auditory channel while subjects tracked a human voice in the attended channel. Subjects reported hearing nothing at all in the unattended channel. Subjects were unable to discriminate new from old stimuli at a level exceeding change, but preferred tone sequences previously presented to the unattended channel over novel stimuli. The conclusion is that affective processes are triggered by information that is too weak to provide verbal recognition. * Many more stimuli are apprehended than can be stored in short-term or long-term memory. Subliminal perception (we perceive without perceiving) can be derived as a logical consequence of the principle of selective filtering. We can perceive without remembering. The subliminal perception hypothesis: some stimuli may affect ongoing mental processes, without being registered in short-term memory or long-term memory. It also suggests that people may sometimes be unable to report even the existence of influential stimuli and, as reported by creative people (see next bullet point), this may frequently be the case in problem-solving. * How creative people (artists, writers, mathematicians, scientists and philosophers) speak about the process of production and problem solving: they state they are the first to witness the fruits of a problem-solving process that is almost completely hidden from conscious view. For these people, the y have no idea what factors prompted the solution and the fact that a process is taking place is sometimes unknown to them prior to the point that a solution appears in consciousness. * People are increasingly less likely to help others in distress as the number of witnesses or bystanders increases. However, subjects always claim that their behavior was not influenced by other people around them. * The authors performed a series of small studies to fill in the gaps from the other studies, choosing cognitive processes that were used routinely with minimal deception. The results were not as expected: most of the stimuli the authors expected to influence subjects’ responses turned out to have no effect, and many of the stimuli that the authors expected to have no effect turned out to be influential. Subjects were virtually never accurate in their reports – if the stimulus component had a significant effect on responses, subjects typically reported that it was noninfluential. * Erroneous reports about stimuli influencing associative behavior: 81 students in introductory psychology were asked to memorize a list of words that may target them towards a response. When asked if the words memorized affected them, they stated distinctive features of the product (Tide is the b est known detergent) rather than the words leading them to say Tide. They also did an awareness ratio for the target words – the results were that for some of the target words the subjects reported no influence and for others many more subjects reported an influence than were probably influenced. * Erroneous reports about the influence of an individual’s personality on reactions to his physical characteristics: A study, known as the halo effect, showed that the manipulated warmth or coldness of an individual’s personality had a large effect on rating of the attractiveness of his appearance, speech and mannerisms. Many subjects actually insisted that their feelings about the individual’s appearance, etc. had influenced their liking of him/her. * The studies discussed do not suffice that people could never be accurate about the processes involved. The studies indicate that introspective access as may exist is not sufficient to produce accurate reports about the role of critical stimuli in response to questions asked a few min utes or seconds after the stimuli have been processed or response produced. People often make assertions about mental events to which they may have no access and these assertions may bear little resemblance to the actual events. * Evidence indicates it may be misleading for social scientists to ask their subjects about the influences on their evaluations, choices or behavior – those reports may have little value. Observers who read reports from experiments reported similarly to how subjects themselves predicted how they would react to the stimulus situation (e.g., other people around would not affect their behavior) – therefore, since their reports are similar, it is unnecessary to assume that observers are drawing on â€Å"a fount of privileged knowledge† when they make their predictions on how they would act. * A Priori Casual theories may have any of several origins: * The culture of subculture may have explicit rules stating the relationship between a particular stimulus and a particular response (I came to a stop because the light changed) * The culture of subculture may supply implicit theories about causal relations (one particular stimulus may â€Å"psychologically imply† a particular response) – Jim gave flowers to Amy so she’s acting nice today. * An individual may hold a particular causal theory on the basis of empirical observation of covariation between stimuli of the general type and responses of the general type (I’m groggy today – I always get grouchy when I don’t break 100 in golf). However, it has been found that powerful covariations may go undetected when the individual lacks a theory leading him to suspect covariation and, conversely, that the individual may perceive covariation where there is none if he has a theory leading him to expect it. * In absence of a culturally supplied rule, implicit causal theory or assumption about covariation, people may be able to generate causal hypotheses linking even novel stimuli and novel responses. If the stimulus is connotatively similar to the response, then it may be reported as having influenced the response. * The authors state that they are not implying that a priori causal theories are wrong – verbal reports relying on such theories will typically be wrong because they are incorrectly applied in the particular instance. * Therefore, when subjects were asked about their cognitive processes, they may have done something that felt like introspection, but was only merely a simple judgment of the extent to which input was a representative or plausible cause of output. It seems like people, when interrogated about cognitive processes, resort to a pool of culturally supplied explanations for behavior or search through a network of connotative relations until they find an explan ation. * Criterion for awareness: should not be equated with â€Å"correct verbal report† but, instead, â€Å"verbal report which exceeds in accuracy that obtained from observers provided with a general description of the stimulus and response in question.† * Accuracy and inaccuracy in verbal explanations: Tversky and Kahneman proposed that a chief determinant of judgments about the frequency and probability of events is the availability in memory of the events at the time of judgment. Events are judged as frequent in proportion to their availability, and their availability is determined by such factors as the strength of the network of verbal associations that spontaneously call the events to mind. The representativeness and availability heuristics are undoubtedly intertwine in the appraisal of cause and effect relations. If a particular stimulus is not available, then it will not be adduced in explanation of a given effect, even thought it might be highly representative or plausible once called to mind. A second circumstance that decreases accuracy in self-report is a separation in time between the report of the actual occurrence of the process. If asked immediately after the occurrence about a cognitive process, the subjects are leas t aware of the existence of the effective stimuli at this point although here may be no direct access to process. Subjects have some chance of accurately reporting that a particular stimulus was influential. At a later point, the existence of the stimulus may be forgotten or the vagaries of memory may invent factors that were not there, and there would be little chance it would be correctly identified as influential. * Reports will be accurate when influential stimuli are (1) available and (2) plausible causes of the response and when (3) few or no plausible but noninfluential factors are available (if a stranger hits you, you respond afterwards that you do not like the person) * There is some evidence that when even relatively minor steps are taken to disguise the connection between stimulus and response, subjects will fail to report such a connection. * In general, people will be accurate in reports about the causes of their behavior and evaluations wherever the culture, or a subculture, specifies clearly what stimuli should produce which responses, and especially where there is continuing feedback from the culture or subculture concerning the extent to which the individual is following the prescribed rules for input and output. * It seems likely that there are regularities concerning the conditions that give rise to introspective certainty about cognitive processes. Confidence should be high when the causal candidates are (1) few in number, (2) perceptually or memorially salient, (3) highly plausible causes of the given outcome (especially where the basis of plausibility is an explicitly cultural rule) and (4) where the causes have been observed to be associated with the outcome in the past. * Confusion between content and process: an important source of the authors’ belief in introspective awareness is undoubtedly related to the fact that people do have direct access to a great storehouse of private knowledge. People do have access to a host of personal historical facts, they know the focus of their attention at any given point in time and have knowledge concerning his emotions, evaluations and plans superior to that of observers. Therefore, it is less surprising that people would persist in believing that they have direct access to their own cognitive processes. The only mystery lies in why people are so poor at telling the difference between private facts that can be known with near certainty and mental processes to which there may be no access at all. We are also often capable of describing intermediate results (or intermediate output) of a series of mental operations in a way that promotes the feeling that we are describing the operations themselves. For example, one psychology professor may state that they envisioned monkeys swinging from trees, which lead to finding a cord-swinging solution – however, it is scarcely reasonable to propose that such imagery was the process by which the problem was solved. * The authors argued that perceived covariation between stimuli and responses is determined more by causal theories than by actual covariation. There are probably some cases where individuals have idiosyncratic reactions to a particular stimulus that only have knowledge of. For example, a person may believe that he generally loathes strangers who slap him on the back and this belief may make him superior to observers in explaining his feelings in such a situation – however, the authors believe this situation is rare. * Occasionally, noninfluential stimuli may be more vivid and available to the individual than to an outside observer and thus the observer might sometimes be more accurate by virtue of disregarding noninfluential stimuli. * Another reason for the writers belief in introspective awareness stems from lack of feedback. Disconfirmation of hypotheses about the workings of our minds is hard to come by. If an insomniac believes that he is unable to get to sleep because of the stress of his life situation, he will always be able to find evidence supporting this view. * Final belief to sustain the writers’ belief in direct introspective awareness is motivational. It is naturally preferable for us to believe that we have access to the workings of our own mind. Conclusions: * People often cannot report accurately on the effects of particular stimuli on higher order, inference-based responses. Indeed, sometimes they cannot report on the existence of critical stimuli, sometimes cannot report on the existence of their responses, and sometimes cannot e even report that an inferential process of any kind has occurred. The accuracy of subjective reports is so poor as to suggest that any introspective access that may exist is not sufficient to produce generally reliable reports. * When people report on the effects of stimuli, they may base their reports on implicit, a priori theories about the casual connection between stimulus and response instead of discussing a memory of the cognitive process that operated on the stimuli. If the stimulus psychologically implies the response in some way or seems â€Å"representative† of the types of stimuli that influence the response, the stimulus is reported to have influenced the response. If the stimulus does not seem to be a plausible cause of the response, it is reported to be noninfluential. * Sometimes subjective reports about higher mental processes are correct, but these instances are not due to direct introspective awareness. Rather, they are due to the incdentially correct employment of a priori causal theories.

Free Essays on History I

of the Declaration of Independence, our nation was founded on the principles of equality in life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Yet, long before the founders of the newly declared state met in Philadelphia to espouse the virtues of self-determination and freedom that would dubiously provide a basis for a secessionary war, those same virtues were trampled upon and swept away with little regard. Beneath the shining beacon of freedom that signaled the formation of the United States of America was a shadow of deception and duplicity that was essential in creating the state. The HSS 280 class lexicon defines duality as â€Å"a social system that results from a worldview which accepts inherent contradictions as reasonable because this is to the believer’s benefit.† The early years of what would become the United States was characterized by a system of duality that subjugated and exterminated peoples for the benefit of the oppressors. This pattern of duality, interwoven into our culture, has created an dangerously racialized society. From the first moment a colonist landed on these shores, truths that were â€Å"self-evident† were contingent on subjective â€Å"interpretation.† This discretionary application of rights and freedoms is the foundation upon which our racially stratified system operates on. English colonists, Africans, and Native Americans comprised the early clash of three peoples. Essentially economic interests, and namely capitalism, provided the impetus for the relationships that developed between the English colonists, the Africans, and the Native Americans. The colonialization of North American by the British was essentially an economic crusade. The emergence of capitalism and the rise of trade throughout the 16th century provided the British with a blueprint to expand its economic and political sphere. The Americas... Free Essays on History I Free Essays on History I The history of the United States is one of duality. In the words of the Declaration of Independence, our nation was founded on the principles of equality in life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Yet, long before the founders of the newly declared state met in Philadelphia to espouse the virtues of self-determination and freedom that would dubiously provide a basis for a secessionary war, those same virtues were trampled upon and swept away with little regard. Beneath the shining beacon of freedom that signaled the formation of the United States of America was a shadow of deception and duplicity that was essential in creating the state. The HSS 280 class lexicon defines duality as â€Å"a social system that results from a worldview which accepts inherent contradictions as reasonable because this is to the believer’s benefit.† The early years of what would become the United States was characterized by a system of duality that subjugated and exterminated peoples for the benefit of the oppressors. This pattern of duality, interwoven into our culture, has created an dangerously racialized society. From the first moment a colonist landed on these shores, truths that were â€Å"self-evident† were contingent on subjective â€Å"interpretation.† This discretionary application of rights and freedoms is the foundation upon which our racially stratified system operates on. English colonists, Africans, and Native Americans comprised the early clash of three peoples. Essentially economic interests, and namely capitalism, provided the impetus for the relationships that developed between the English colonists, the Africans, and the Native Americans. The colonialization of North American by the British was essentially an economic crusade. The emergence of capitalism and the rise of trade throughout the 16th century provided the British with a blueprint to expand its economic and political sphere. The Americas...

Caucasian Reaction To Latinohispanic - Smart Custom Writing Samples

Caucasian Reaction To Latinohispanic - Smart Custom Writing Interagency OperationThe national security policy directives are presidential directives or the contemporary interagency integration that are aimed at managing complex crises especially in foreign countries, for example Operation Restore Democracy (1994) in Haiti. Interagency operations are and will be successful in the future following the upholding of the joint doctrine. With efficient coordination between state agencies, the response to emerging security problems can be effective. Additionally, the directives are specific and are formed to address specific issues that are of security concern. The specific nature of these directives enables the specific problems to be solved exhaustively. Another contributor to the success of interagency processes is that they are thoroughly inclusive, that is, each organization brings its own skills and practices to the interagency process. Besides the inclusiveness, the planning of the operations is thorough and rehearsals are held before the actual operation. As a consequence, there is always a likelihood of success in such operations. The challenge with the directives is that they are made by the executive. According to Newman (2003), different presidents have different leadership styles, and some have been known to bypass the use of interagency integration (p.13). It is noteworthy that most of the interagency NSPD are formed more often than not as responsive measures to arising challenges than they are for proactive purposes. This means that problems will almost always come before these directives are given, and therefore they may not be effective currently and in the future. According to Bradford and Mendel (1995), unless a national interagency system and process is considered desirable, the function of multiagency operation will remain in the offices of separate government organizations (p.22). In addition, there is little documented guidance for joint and service commanders to explain their roles and responsibilities in the process of interagency integration. In conclusion, proper planning and execution of pla ns in interagency operations, coupled with pro-active integration of agencies to address crises before they are widespread will always ensure the success of these directives. References Bradford, D. Mendel, W. (1995). Interagency Cooperation a Regional Model for Overseas operations. Washington, DC: DIANE Publishing. Newmann, W. (2003). Managing National Security Policy: The President and the Process. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.

Safeguarding Essay Example

Safeguarding Essay Example Safeguarding Essay Safeguarding Essay This could be because of mental or physical health issues. G. Neglect by others- This is a failure to meet a person care needs by another person. 2. Identify the signs and/or symptoms associated with each type of abuse (1. 1. ) Physical- Bruising thats odd shaped, burns, marks on the skins, broken bones, unexplained falls. Sexual- Anxiety, fear of contact, bleeding, infection in genital area, bursitiss , crying unexplained, withdrawal, torn clothes, self harming and neglect. Emotive/physical- Change in sleep Patten , nightmares, seeking behavior, self isolation, loss or gain weight, sadness, crying depression, low self esteem lack of self confidence. Financial- Unexplained bills to pay, over spending money not explain, no food in house, big withdrawals from the account, money missing pressure to change the ill. Institutional- rigid runtimes, lack of choice, cultural need religious needs not met, restrict to food,drink , having baths. Self neglect- Personal hygiene, not taking care of medical needs, not eating, misuse of drugs and alcohol. Neglect by others- Denial of care and rights, choices, with holding medication, falling to meet a persons needs i. E social, cultural needs not providing food and drink. Failure of duty of care. 3. Describe factors that may contribute to an individual being more vulnerable to abuse (1. 1. 3) Factors of contribute to the individual being more alienable to abuse are related to the individual and to there situation for expand ; they may depend on social support was stop this can leave the infinitival more vulnerable to abuse as may become insolate. If an individual was having communication problems like speech or hearing and all support was Stop because Of the career could make them isolated witch can make the situation be high stress level ,a lack of support given to care giver of if they have physical or mental health issues or staff shortages. 4. Explain the actions to take if there are suspicions that an individual is being abused (2. . 1) If you suspect someone is being abuse at your work place you should follow your policy and procedure. You need to report it to the team leader or manger or talk to someone you trust while maintain confidentiality. By doing this your be keeping the person safe. Maintain duty of care. Make sure you have all the facts and that they are right but if you are in any adult always report it to the manger. Follow up about the situation and that it has been recorded. Safety is everyone responsibility doing nothing is unsafe practice. 5. Explain the actions to take if an individual alleges that they are being bused (2. 2. 2) If an individual tessellates that they are being abuse you should follow procedure and take the person seriously. Take them some where safe and private. Keep them calm and try to look normal and not angry listen to them. Respect what they would like to do. Reassure them and give them your support make sure you let them know what they are area what your going to do to help them make sure you record and let them know there not to blame and erasure them. Try not to put them in anymore danger ask questions that leading you may have to ask that they may not like-Make urea you disuses the situation with the people who need to be informed. 6. Identify ways to ensure that evidence of abuse is preserved (2. 2. ) The Fri. part of duty of care will be to alleged victim take steps to pressure any evidence. Where a criminal offence may of took place-Do not move or remove anything or touch. Dont clean or tidy up or let anyone who not evolved in the area. When talking to the person recorded any visible signs such as bruising, torn clothing, signs Of distress. Handle anything with care try not to touch mach as it may be used as evidence keep the per son warm as they maybe In stock. . Identify national policies and local systems that relate to safeguarding and protection from abuse (3. 3. ) Policies -? Legal powers to intervene humans right at 1 998 Mental capacity act 2005 Safeguarding vulnerable group act 2006 Health and social care act 2008 Has act, regulation 2010, ICQ regulation 2009 8. Explain the roles of different agencies in safeguarding and protecting individuals from abuse (3. 3. 2) Local authority adult social care Services they receive safeguarding alerts make sure action is taken to keep persona. Give information and advice. Arrange meeting and case conference. Represented at police interviews. All agencies. E police, INS, Gasp, Medical services etc. They implement and work to the safeguarding adults policies and procedures. They ensure staff are aware of signs and symptoms on abuse and getting training on the safeguarding adult and policies and procedures. They ensure staff are aware are area of signs and symptoms of abuse and getting training on the safeguarding police reporting and recording procedures they also require by law CURB checked. Police are to investigate allegation of abuse gather evidence and protect people in situation. Medical services provide retirement if required understate an investigation or medical examination if required. . Identify reports into serious failures to protect individuals from abuse.

How do Piagets and Vygotskys theories of learning and development Essay

How do Piagets and Vygotskys theories of learning and development compare regarding the influences of social interactions in childrens cognitive development - Essay Example These theories include Maturationist, Environmentalist and Constructivists ones. These three schools of thoughts have different views and ideas on child development. Piaget and Vygotsky are the pioneers and representatives of the Constructivist school of thought. Both of them have similarities and dissimilarities in their views. Before discussing the three aspects of child development, it is necessary to define cognitive psychology. In the words of Anderson: Cognitive psychology attempts to understand the nature of human intelligence and how people think. The study of cognitive psychology is motivated by scientific curiosity, by the desire for practical applications, and by the need to provide a foundation for other fields of social science. (Anderson, 1990:1) The Swiss biologist Jean Piaget and Russian psychologist Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky were the theorists to advance the constructivist theory of Cognitive development in children. According to which the cognitive development starts in children with their interaction with the environment and people around them. It is necessary for a child’s development, according to them, that he must interact with other individuals of society. The theory is different from the Maturationist school of thought. The Maturationist theorists believe that the cognitive development is a biological process, and all the healthy (normal) children get it as long as they grow physically. The theorists including Arnold Gessel and others believe that the cognitive development occur naturally and automatically. DeCos has quoted their views in these words: School readiness, according to maturationists, is a state at which all healthy young children arrive when they can perform tasks such as reciting the alphabet and counting; these tasks are required for learning more complex tasks such as reading and arithmetic. (DeCos, 1997) On the other hand, constructivists are of the view that development in children is not the outcome of

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 40

Leadership - Essay Example Concern for the people in an organisation entails making sure that the employees have the best working conditions and a given a fair remuneration. Creating favourable conditions in the work place for the employees makes them feel appreciated and increases their loyalty to the organisation, which then translates to them working with a lot of dedication hence more improved performance in the organisation (Kuballa, 2007). Concern for productivity within an organisation entails increase the output levels in the organization. A firm that aims at increasing productivity is mainly concerned with improving efficiency of the production process; however, this may be at the expense of the satisfaction of the employees (Lohrasbi, 2006). Productivity in an organisation cannot be achieved unless the employees are willing to improve the performance; poor treatment of the employees leads to low productivity even when an organisation has put in place measures to improve productivity, this is because those measures that have been put in place require human labour in order for them to work (Sharma & Gupta,

Exam - 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Exam - 3 - Essay Example nal integration with highly qualified management, external technical assistance, and good project communication (Applegate, Austin & Soule, 2009:317). Low structured-high technology projects: These refer to projects that are even more complex, considering that such projects entail the combination of low technology and unknown outcomes (Applegate, Austin & Soule, 2009:351). Thus the level of uncertainty is very high, since the expectations are uncertain, while the technology being used is novel and experimental, putting such projects at a great risk of project failure. To avert the chances of such projects failing, the tools that are necessary are the internal integration and the external integration tools, comprising of teams of highly qualified developers, and the excellent application f communication skills (Applegate, Austin & Soule, 2009:317). High structure-low technology projects: These are projects that have the lowest level of risk involved, since they comprise of well understood technology and well-defined outputs and user-requirements (Applegate, Austin & Soule, 2009:316). The essential tools for such type of projects include formal control of results and formal project planning. Low structure low technology projects: This are projects with low levels of risk, because the technology applicable is well known, so the only difficulty is the high rate of volatility of user requirements (Applegate, Austin & Soule, 2009:313). Such projects require the application of good project communication and excellent external integration as the tools to assist in the ever-changing user requirement. Before the incident: At this stage, the issues that need to be considered are the sound design of the project. Further, there also needs to be the consideration of the level of execution, where a high level of disciplined execution is required (Applegate, Austin & Soule, 2009:281). Further, it is important to have detailed documentation of all process and procedures, as

The business of developing new drugs for cancer patients Essay

The business of developing new drugs for cancer patients - Essay Example Cancer is basically the abnormality of cells which spreads throughout the body rendering it unable to survive. It is the disease of malignant cells and tissues which get destroyed because of the germs of virus in the body, thus, called as Malignant Neoplasm. There are no clear symptoms of the disease in the start of attack of cancer whereas later on certain symptoms and presence of some specific signs cause the identification of disease. However, cancer can be cured with a little care and treatment if it is detected at some early stages when the malignancy of tissues has not spread throughout the body. When a certain part of body has been affected by the cancerous germs and this disease id identified, it can easily be cured with the help of specific drugs that have been prepared for this purpose during last few decades. About a century ago, cancer was not a known disease throughout the world and many people died of it without knowing about its existence. With the use of advanced research and technology, the identification and treatment of this disease have become possible to such an extent that almost 60 percent of patients at early stage have been cured in last few years and only a small number of patients have died of this disease. However, in last few years, this common killer disease has caught the attention of many specialist and researchers and they have been trying hard to discover new and curable solutions of this disease. It is observed that they have also been successful in their intentions as the business for developing new drugs for cancer treatment has been flourished to such an extent that many drugs have been introduced in the medical world which provide gradual but successful relieve to this disease. Majority of the third world countries lack the awareness to this disease, but in the developed nations like America, there is a considerable awareness and treatment available for cancer. The demand for such drugs that cure cancer is increasing day by day in all developed and under developed countries nowadays. Although there is a fast development and research in the field of developing drugs of different diseases, there are many different types of diseases among which certain are very dangerous, still considered incurable and need special attention for making of drugs for their cure. However, according to a recent research, it has been discovered that 200 various different kinds of cancer have been identified in cancer patients by the specialists; according to an analysis, 1 in 3 Americans has been found affected by the identified cancerous forms while everyday 1 American in 4 dies because of cancer besides the best treatment facilities and drugs availability (Ernst, 2008). America is paying special attention to cure this disease and discover easy and simple method s to cure cancer. Their best qualified scientists are involved in researching the cancer treatment drugs and they are spending $125 billion every year on the discovery, examination and drugs preparation for cure of cancer. It has also been hypothesized that cancer treatment budget can rise high up to $207 billion in America till 2020 (Ernst, 2008). It is very difficult to find some simple and pain free treatment drugs for cancer that can provide reliable, permanent and authentic relief to cancer patient. It is very expensive research project but Americans are trying hard for inventing some affordable cancerous treatment. Expensive treatment for cancer goes beyond approach for the poor just like prostate

Globalization and Arab Spring Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Globalization and Arab Spring - Research Paper Example dared to rebel, especially because they knew that their messages and videos, uploaded to YouTube, which could be seen abroad and the worldwide media among others (Till, 2011). Consequently, the elements of globalization turned out to be decisive in inflicting a final blow to the cruel political systems prevailing in the Arab world. Social media, Mayfield (2008) asserts, could be stated as a group of new kinds of online media, which share the characteristics including participation, openness, conversation, community and connectedness, and brings the like-minded people closer to one another through its platform. Before embarking upon the topic under analysis, it would be advisable to define and discuss globalization and its impact on the Arab spring in a precise way, which is as following. The term globalization simply concentrates upon the expansion of multiculturalism in the wake of tremendous technological advancements that have paved the way towards fast communication processes bet ween the individuals and nations belonging to the pole-apart regions of the globe. In other words, globalization stands for the interconnectedness of the people at global scale through the sharing of technological equipments, corporate activities, cultural traits, social norms, political systems, religious values, traditional rituals and conventions at large. The term globalization, according to Brainpan, is not confined to few financial and industrial cooperation pacts between the nations; rather, the term refers to the integration of economies of the world through uninhibited trade and financial flows, as also through mutual exchange of technology and knowledge (Goyal, 2006:168). While expected by the political analysts one day or the other, the rebellions in Arab states were somewhat... The term globalization simply concentrates upon the expansion of multiculturalism in the wake of tremendous technological advancements that have paved the way towards fast communication processes between the individuals and nations belonging to the pole-apart regions of the globe. In other words, globalization stands for the interconnectedness of the people at global scale through the sharing of technological equipments, corporate activities, cultural traits, social norms, political systems, religious values, traditional rituals and conventions at large. The term globalization, according to Brainpan, is not confined to few financial and industrial cooperation pacts between the nations; rather, the term refers to the integration of economies of the world through uninhibited trade and financial flows, as also through mutual exchange of technology and knowledge (Goyal, 2006:168). While expected by the political analysts one day or the other, the rebellions in Arab states were somewhat horrendous for the world at large, which could not anticipate any dauntlessness move from the oppressed and suppressed subjects had been leading a miserable and pathetic life under the longstanding dictatorial regimes. Recent upheavals in Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen and Libya, according to Hoover (2011), have caught many by surprise as the order of things has proven protean in a way that official experts and conventional wisdom were largely blind to.

Cost-benefit analysis of the ban on drugs in netherlands Essay

Cost-benefit analysis of the ban on drugs in netherlands - Essay Example Cost-benefit analysis of the ban on drugs in netherlands The case under study will consider the use of cost-benefit analysis as one of the economic approach to testing the cost that the society will incur if they opt for either of the mentioned policies (Cleveland, 2008, p. 563). On the other side of the coin, the benefit that each of the two options will accrue will also be measured, and the further systematic test procedure qualifies one to be adopted. Economic policies across the world have been influenced by both political and social factors. It is worth noting that the general welfare of people is given priority. In any economic idea in the society, critical analysis needs to be carried out to ascertain its benefit or loss to the people. Various concepts are applicable in this respect but their uses also depend on the nature of economic variables under question (Chris & Wilhite 2004, pp. 108-9). Cost-benefit analysis is an economic concept that has a wide use. In project appraisal it is one of the recommended methods of testing the vi ability of a project. . It is a double faced in-depth analysis of the various cost that would be incurred in making a given investment policy and comparing with the benefit that would be obtained from successfully undertaking the project under question. Its application is not only limited to economic projects but also covers the political decisions that are pegged on economic results. An example includes decisions by the government to introduce a given statute that will regulate a given behavior of a specific group of people. In this regard, the Netherlands is faced with a policy dilemma of whether to legalize the aforementioned drugs or to put a ban. Some of the challenges that it faces are the issue of a high influx of tourists who pose a threat to the law regulating the consumption of these drugs (Miron & Zwiebel, 2005, pp.67-8). It is, therefore, important to draw a cost-benefit model that would check which way is the best to go. Social cost of prohibition tends to be higher as it triggers various socials ills in the society, which translates to retrogressive economic direction of the country. On the other side, legalization comes with some costs of formulating and harmonizing the legal policy across the various groups of people that include citizens and foreigners without creating any negative impact on the diplomatic relations with other states and the tourism sector (Miron, 2001, p. 851). In estimating the costs, there is a breakdown of various tangible and intangible costs, and this is a characteristic of the legal proposals that the Dutch authorities are trying to put across. Benefits in terms of economic policy also have a wide use and sum up all the positive contributions of a given idea which includes reduction of negative factors. In applying the concept of cost-benefit analysis in the case of this country, we are simply assuming that the cost has a negative sign while the benefits have positive signs. When the two are summed up, a positive sign i s deemed acceptable; the negative result, on the other hand, is considered a burden while zero may mean that other factors are taken into consideration. In relation to the case of imposing a ban on the drugs, a lot of social costs are eminent (Chris & Wilhite, 2004, p. 114; Cleveland, 2008, p. 577). One of them is the

The business of developing new drugs for cancer patients Essay

The business of developing new drugs for cancer patients - Essay Example Cancer is basically the abnormality of cells which spreads throughout the body rendering it unable to survive. It is the disease of malignant cells and tissues which get destroyed because of the germs of virus in the body, thus, called as Malignant Neoplasm. There are no clear symptoms of the disease in the start of attack of cancer whereas later on certain symptoms and presence of some specific signs cause the identification of disease. However, cancer can be cured with a little care and treatment if it is detected at some early stages when the malignancy of tissues has not spread throughout the body. When a certain part of body has been affected by the cancerous germs and this disease id identified, it can easily be cured with the help of specific drugs that have been prepared for this purpose during last few decades. About a century ago, cancer was not a known disease throughout the world and many people died of it without knowing about its existence. With the use of advanced research and technology, the identification and treatment of this disease have become possible to such an extent that almost 60 percent of patients at early stage have been cured in last few years and only a small number of patients have died of this disease. However, in last few years, this common killer disease has caught the attention of many specialist and researchers and they have been trying hard to discover new and curable solutions of this disease. It is observed that they have also been successful in their intentions as the business for developing new drugs for cancer treatment has been flourished to such an extent that many drugs have been introduced in the medical world which provide gradual but successful relieve to this disease. Majority of the third world countries lack the awareness to this disease, but in the developed nations like America, there is a considerable awareness and treatment available for cancer. The demand for such drugs that cure cancer is increasing day by day in all developed and under developed countries nowadays. Although there is a fast development and research in the field of developing drugs of different diseases, there are many different types of diseases among which certain are very dangerous, still considered incurable and need special attention for making of drugs for their cure. However, according to a recent research, it has been discovered that 200 various different kinds of cancer have been identified in cancer patients by the specialists; according to an analysis, 1 in 3 Americans has been found affected by the identified cancerous forms while everyday 1 American in 4 dies because of cancer besides the best treatment facilities and drugs availability (Ernst, 2008). America is paying special attention to cure this disease and discover easy and simple method s to cure cancer. Their best qualified scientists are involved in researching the cancer treatment drugs and they are spending $125 billion every year on the discovery, examination and drugs preparation for cure of cancer. It has also been hypothesized that cancer treatment budget can rise high up to $207 billion in America till 2020 (Ernst, 2008). It is very difficult to find some simple and pain free treatment drugs for cancer that can provide reliable, permanent and authentic relief to cancer patient. It is very expensive research project but Americans are trying hard for inventing some affordable cancerous treatment. Expensive treatment for cancer goes beyond approach for the poor just like prostate

Cost-benefit analysis of the ban on drugs in netherlands Essay

Cost-benefit analysis of the ban on drugs in netherlands - Essay Example Cost-benefit analysis of the ban on drugs in netherlands The case under study will consider the use of cost-benefit analysis as one of the economic approach to testing the cost that the society will incur if they opt for either of the mentioned policies (Cleveland, 2008, p. 563). On the other side of the coin, the benefit that each of the two options will accrue will also be measured, and the further systematic test procedure qualifies one to be adopted. Economic policies across the world have been influenced by both political and social factors. It is worth noting that the general welfare of people is given priority. In any economic idea in the society, critical analysis needs to be carried out to ascertain its benefit or loss to the people. Various concepts are applicable in this respect but their uses also depend on the nature of economic variables under question (Chris & Wilhite 2004, pp. 108-9). Cost-benefit analysis is an economic concept that has a wide use. In project appraisal it is one of the recommended methods of testing the vi ability of a project. . It is a double faced in-depth analysis of the various cost that would be incurred in making a given investment policy and comparing with the benefit that would be obtained from successfully undertaking the project under question. Its application is not only limited to economic projects but also covers the political decisions that are pegged on economic results. An example includes decisions by the government to introduce a given statute that will regulate a given behavior of a specific group of people. In this regard, the Netherlands is faced with a policy dilemma of whether to legalize the aforementioned drugs or to put a ban. Some of the challenges that it faces are the issue of a high influx of tourists who pose a threat to the law regulating the consumption of these drugs (Miron & Zwiebel, 2005, pp.67-8). It is, therefore, important to draw a cost-benefit model that would check which way is the best to go. Social cost of prohibition tends to be higher as it triggers various socials ills in the society, which translates to retrogressive economic direction of the country. On the other side, legalization comes with some costs of formulating and harmonizing the legal policy across the various groups of people that include citizens and foreigners without creating any negative impact on the diplomatic relations with other states and the tourism sector (Miron, 2001, p. 851). In estimating the costs, there is a breakdown of various tangible and intangible costs, and this is a characteristic of the legal proposals that the Dutch authorities are trying to put across. Benefits in terms of economic policy also have a wide use and sum up all the positive contributions of a given idea which includes reduction of negative factors. In applying the concept of cost-benefit analysis in the case of this country, we are simply assuming that the cost has a negative sign while the benefits have positive signs. When the two are summed up, a positive sign i s deemed acceptable; the negative result, on the other hand, is considered a burden while zero may mean that other factors are taken into consideration. In relation to the case of imposing a ban on the drugs, a lot of social costs are eminent (Chris & Wilhite, 2004, p. 114; Cleveland, 2008, p. 577). One of them is the

Finding a Large Problem as an Idea and How to Implement It to Achieve Success Essay Example for Free

Finding a Large Problem as an Idea and How to Implement It to Achieve Success Essay Ideas can and do change the world. Ideas are important to bring innovation and change in this world. Ideas can be used by students to achieve success in their academic life. Through the power of ideas, students can revitalize their sagging prospects and boost their grades. Of all the ideas mentioned in class, I was very impressed by the idea of finding a large problem and working to rectify the problem. It’s similar in my mind to finding a root cause or a deeply entrenched issue that is preventing success. To cure a problem or to enhance performance, one has to begin at the grass roots level. To find a problem, one has to look in hindsight and do a back ward analysis as to where one was found wanting. By identifying the problem, alienating it from other issues and after generation of ideas and solutions for the problem, the best solution is selected (International Development Experiences, Applications Systems, 2004). So, in order to prevent future occurrences, one has to begin by looking at the past. I can use this approach to solve a great deal of the issues in my academic and personal life. I will discuss academic solutions here. One of the largest problems that I face as a student is that my grammatical and vocabulary skills are not very refined and need a lot of work. I identified this problem by looking at past comments of my teachers. I have understood that there are a number of alternatives to solving this problem. Firstly, my spoken English remains very satisfactory, so my focus is on my written communication. One of the alternatives is to read various items, such as books, journals, magazines and newspapers. Another alternative is to practice writing essays and summaries. The final alternative is to do a combination of both the above alternatives. Since reading is not sufficient to increase writing skills and similarly writing with my current vocabulary base is also not nearly enough. Therefore, the best alternative is to allot time to both reading and writing every week. List of References International Development Experiences, Applications Systems. (2004, November 1). FAQs. Retrieved 2 2, 2009, from IDEAS Problem based learning: http://celt. ust. hk/ideas/pbl/faqs/index. html#1

Inclusion of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Inclusion of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine attitudes towards inclusion of students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) and self-efficacy beliefs of preservice teachers. Background factors will be explored in relation to both attitudes towards inclusion and self efficacy beliefs. ASDs are becoming the fastest growing developmental disabilities with 1 out of every 150 births being diagnosed as having one of these disorders. ASDs are typically defined as developmental disorders and can range in symptoms from mild to severe. They are identified by abnormal or impaired development in social interaction and communication combined with a restricted repertoire of activities and interests. As a result, more children with ASDs are in need of educational services. Preservice teachers will be surveyed for their level of efficacy as well as attitudes towards inclusion of children with autism spectrum disorders. Preservice Teachers Efficacy: A Correlate of Attitudes towards Inclusion of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder Chapter 1: Introduction This study will focus on self-efficacy beliefs preservice teachers’ and their attitudes towards inclusion of students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs). Historically, inclusion studies have broadly focused on students with general disabilities without differentiation of the 13 disability categories as listed in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA). It is necessary to briefly address special education law in order to understand how students with exceptionalities are placed and serviced within the education system (either in special education, general education, or a combination of classes). IDEA is the federal legislation that regulates the education of students with disabilities (Woolfolk, 2010). It was originally enacted by Congress in 1975 to ensure that children with disabilities had the same opportunity as students without disabilities (Woolfolk, 2010). The law has seen many revisions throughout the years. The most recent amendments to IDEA were passed by Congress in December 2004. The final regulations were published in August 2006 and termed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEIA 2004) (Public Law No. 108-446). IDEIA 2004 guides how states and school districts identify and provide special education and related services to children with disabilities (http://www.nichcy.org/idea.htm). IDEIA 2004 specifically addresses where students with disabilities should be educated and also requires schools to provide a free and appropriate education (FAPE) for all students (Woolfolk, 2010). Although the law does not specifically use the terminology inclusion, it does use the term least restrictive environment (LRE) when speaking of placement for students with disabilities (Inzano, 1999). The law regarding placing students within the LRE has generated many questions as to exactly what constitutes an LRE. According to the law, in an LRE, the student is to be placed with non-disabled peers as much as appropriate throughout the school day (IDEIA, 2004). In addition, the student can only be separated from nondisabled peers if the nature or severity of their disability impedes upon their education (IDEIA, 2004; http://www.findcounseling.com/journal/sped/least.html). Based upon this law, there appears to be a push to teach children with disabilities within the regular education classrooms (Villa, Thousand, Nevin, Liston, 2005 Liston, 2005). As a result of this, there will be a paradigm shift moving away from segregation to integration where students with and without disabilities will be taught together (Giddens, 2001). Inclusive education is identified by the integration of all students, including those with disabilities, into the general education classroom (Avramidis Norwich 2002; Woolfolk, 2010). Inclusion is often confused with the notion of mainstreaming. Schnorr (1990) indicated that mainstreaming and inclusion each deal with students with disabilities in the regular classrooms, the responsibilities of the general education teacher is different for both. In mainstreaming, the regular class teacher is responsible for some of the instruction of the student with exceptionalities while the special education teacher is primarily responsible for the student’s instruction (Lipsky Gartner, 1989). This is quite different than inclusion. Through inclusion, the regular class teacher is responsible for nearly all of the instruction of the student with special needs. The special education teacher serves as a support to the regular education teacher (Salisbury et al., 1995). For the purposes of this study, inclusion will be defined as full term placement in mainstream general education classes with appropriate special education support services. By studying disability categories under a broad umbrella, it is difficult to differentiate attitudes towards inclusion of specific disability categories. Inclusion of students based on specific disability categories is limited and has not been fully analyzed in current research studies. Research has largely focused on teacher attitudes towards inclusion of students with learning disabilities (Avramidis, Bayliss, et al 2000; Bender, Vail, et al, 1995; Bradshaw Mundia 2006; Buell, Hallam, et al 1999; Burke Sutherland 2004; Campbell, Gilmore et al 2003; Clough Lindsay 1991; Elhoweris Alsheikh 2006; Hammond Ingalls 2003; Jobe, Rust, et al. 1996; Kadell Wiebe 2001; Kalyva, Gojkovic, et al 2007; Kwapy 2004; Reasons 2005; Romer 2004; Ross-Hill 2007; Sebesta 2002; Shade Stewart 2001; Walpole 2006). There have been some studies focusing on emotional and behavioral difficulties within the general education classrooms (Avramidis, Bayliss, Burden 2000; Clough Lindsay 1991; Hastings Oakford 2003; Soodak et al. 1998; Stoiber et al. 1998); cognitive impairments (Center Ward 1987; Thomas 1985), and mild physical disabilities (Center Ward 1987; Forlin 1995). The remaining special education categories have not been the focus of much research (Autism Spectrum Disorder, Blind or Low Vision; Deaf or Hard of hearing; Deaf-Blind; Developmentally Delayed; Language or Speech impairment; Multiple Disabilities; Other health impairment; Orthopedic impairment; and Traumatic brain injury). This study will investigate the attitudes of pre-service teachers toward inclusion of students with ASDs. ASDs fall within the Pervasive Developmental Disorders based upon the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – Fourth Edition (DSM-IV, p. 14; 2005). The terms ASDs and Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) are often used synonymously (Pieranagelo Giuliani, 2007). Pervasive Developmental Disorder is a general term that refers to a spectrum of disorders that differ with respect to the number and type of symptoms or age of onset (DSM-IV, pg. 69). Pervasive Developmental Disorders include Autistic Disorder, Rett’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (DSM-IV, p. 14; 2005). ASDs are typically defined as developmental disorders in which behavior characteristics range in syndrome expression and the symptoms change as the child develops on a continuum from mild to severe (Volkmar, Paul, Klin, Cohen, 2005). â€Å"They are typically characterized by severe and perva sive impairment in several areas of development that include reciprocal and social interaction skills, communication skills, or the presence of stereotyped behavior, interests, and activities†(DSM-IV, pg 69; 2005). Four million children are born in the United States every year and of these four million children; 560,000 individuals between the ages of 0-21 have an ASD (http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/faq_prevalence.htm). Based on prevalence statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) from 2007, one out of every 150 children in the United States has autism (http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_whatis_factsstats). Due to the increase in diagnosis of ASDs, more children are in need of specialized education programs. In 2006, the CDC reported 484,299 individuals between the ages 3 through 21 received services under the ‘autism’ classification for special education services (https://www.ideadata.org/tables30th/ar_1-3.htm). Additional data from the CDC reported the state of Indiana serviced 159,679 students under IDEA in 2006 between the ages of 6 and 21. Of these students, 7,391 were identified as having an ASD (https://www.ideadata.org/tables30th/ar_1-3.htm). Illinois reported serving 289,611 students under IDEA in 2006 between the ages of 6 and 21. Of these students, 9,398 students were identified as having an ASD (https://www.ideadata.org/tables30th/ar_1-3.htm). Michigan reported serving 217,673 under IDEA in 2006 between the ages of 6 and 21. Of these students, 9,723 were identified as having an ASD (https://www.ideadata.org/tables30th/ar_1-3.htm). The needs of students with ASDs vary and should be identified and addressed within their educational programming. As stated earlier, ASDs are a group of developmental disabilities that are defined by significant impairments in social interaction, communication, and unusual behaviors (DSM-IV, pg. 69). This is of particular concern when looking at the best learning environment for students with ASDs. Researchers and educators agree that children with ASDs benefit from early intervention services (National Research Council, 2001; Rapin, 1997; Rogers, 1996; Strain, Wolery Izeman, 1998). It has been found to be beneficial to place students with ASDs in the general education classroom so they have early interventions as well as appropriate role models of social skills (Klinger Dawson, 2005). At the same time, this presents a problem because students with ASDs are often not accepted into the general education class. Rejection increases with the students’ age and severity of their symptoms which increases their tendency to become socially isolated (Burack, Root, Zigler, 1997 as cited in Volkmar, Paul, Klin, Cohen, 2005). Parents, teachers, and students need to work together to determine which educational services are needed and specifically, to afford them with the greatest possibilities for future transitions (Bock Myles, 1999; Crowley, 2000; Bowe, 2005 as cited in Volkmar, Paul, Klin, Cohen, 2005). Educational placement options for students with ASDs need to be a place where they receive the most benefit as well as keeping in accordance with the law requiring LRE. The increase of students with special needs within general education classrooms has spurred changes in attitudes of teachers, parents, and students regarding the appropriate placement for students with disabilities to receive an education. Research has shown that teacher attitudes towards inclusion have a significant impact upon whether or not inclusion is a success or failure within the classroom (Avramidis Norwich 2002; Bacon Schultz 1991; Barton, 1992; Barton Wiczenski 1993; Bishop, 1986; Carroll, Forlin, Jobling 2003; Chow Winzer, 1992; Coates, 1989; Cook, 2001; Cook, Semmel, Gerber 1999; Good Brophy 1997; Hannah Pliner, 1983; Hayes Gunn, 1988; Idol, Nevin Paolucci-Whitcomb 1994; Roa Lim, 1999; Salend 2001; Schumm et al. 1994; Semmel, Abernathy, Butera, Lesar, 1991; Shade Stewart, 2000; Wiczenski, 1993; Van Reusen, Shoho, Barker 2001; William Algozine, 1977; Wood, 1989). Attitude research pertaining to inclusion of students with disabilities has provided widely var ied results (Bennett et al, 1997; Garriott, Miller, Snyder, 2003; Leyser Tappendorf, 2001; Rea et al. 2002; Shier, 2002). Professional groups vary considerably in their perceptions of which children are most likely to be successful with the inclusion process (Bochner Pieterse 1989). There are educators who support the inclusion of students with disabilities and indicate it has positive benefits for students (Avramidis et al, 2000; Chalmers, 1991; Frederickson, Dunsmuir, Lang Monsen 2004; Leyser Tappendorf 2001; Rodgers, 1987; Rojewski Pollard, 1993; Ward et al, 1994; Villa et al, 1996; York, Vandercook, MacDonald, Heise-Neff Caughey, 1992). If teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion are positive, then the experience of their students will also be positive (Anderson, Chitwood, Hayden 1997; Alexander Strain, 1978). Conversely, many educators are not as accepting of inclusion and hold negative attitudes towards inclusion (Alghazo, Dodeen, Algaryouti, 2003; Berryman, 1989; Bradshaw, 2004; Buell, Hallam, Gamel-McCormick, 1999; Center Ward, 1987; Coates, 1989; D’Alonzo, Giordano Cross, 1996; D’Alonzo Ledon 1992; Dixon, 1999; Forlin, Douglas, Hattie, 1996; Gersten, Walker Darch, 1988; Hammond Ingalls 2003; Hayes Gunn, 1988; Horne Ricciardo, 1988; Jamieson, 1984; Jobe, Rust, Brissie, 1996; Larrivee Cook, 1979; Leyser Tappendorf, 2001; Luseno, 2000; Minke et al, 1996; Murphy, 1996; Reiter et al, 1998; Schumm Vaughn 1991; Semmel et al, 1991; Thomas, 1985; Vaughn, Schumm, Jallad, Slusher Saumell, 1996). If the teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion are negative, then the experience of their students will be unsuccessful (Anderson, Chitwood, Hayden 1997; Alexander Strain, 1978). Forlin et al (1999) indicated that teachers’ attitudes towards individuals with disabilities suggest that negative attitudes lead to lower expectations of that student. Research has also shown teachers attitudes toward inclusion were strongly influenced by the nature of the student’s disabilities (Avramidis, Bayliss, Burden, 2000; Bradshaw and Mundia 2006; Center Ward, 1987; Dean, Elrod Blackbourn, 1999; Jobe, Rust Brissie, 1996; Mak, 2003; Scruggs Mastropieri, 1996; Soodak, Podell, Lehman, 1998). Several studies have shown that specific disability areas negatively affected teacher attitudes towards inclusion. Thomas (1985) studied teachers in England and found they opposed integration of students with intellectual difficulties. This opposition has been replicated in several subsequent studies (Avramidis, Bayliss, Burden, 2000; Center Ward, 1987; Clough and Lindsay, 1991; Forlin, 1995; Hayes Gunn, 1988; Kwapy, 2004; Soodak et al., 1998; Stoiber et al., 1998). Research also shows that teachers had difficulty with children who had emotional and behavioral difficulties (Avramidis et al, 2000; Bowman, 1986; Clough Lindsay, 1991; Forlin, 1995; Hastings Oakford, 2003; Hayes Gunn, 1988; Heflin Bullock, 1999; Kwapy, 2004; Soodak et al., 1998; Stoiber et al, 1998). Center and Ward (1987) found that teachers within their research study were reluctant to include students with more severe physical disabilities or students with intellectual disabilities; however, they were willing to accept the inclusion of students with mild physical disabilities. As a result of the mixed results of research on inclusion, it is important to identify attitudes towards inclusion of students, specifically with ASDs, within the general education classroom. To date, there has been a lack of research on ASDs and teacher attitudes towards inclusion. With the movement within the educational system to integrate all students with disabilities into regular education classrooms, it is going to be important to evaluate teacher attitudes toward inclusion of students with ASDs as the prevalence rate for this specific disability is on the rise. Multiple factors have been found to affect teachers’ attitudes (Salend Duhaney, 1999). These factors primarily relate to the child, teacher, and school. Several factors seem to consistently arise in research regarding attitudes towards inclusion of students with disabilities and include teacher efficacy, the type of disability, and the individual’s teacher preparation program. These areas will be the focus of this research study. Teacher efficacy has been a focus in many research studies (Allinder, 1994; Allinder, 1995; Ashton, 1984; Ashton Webb, 1986; Brownell Pajares, 1999; Gibson Dembo, 1984; Pajares, 1992; Soodak, Podell Lehman, 1998). Teacher efficacy is a teacher’s individual beliefs in their capabilities to reach all of their students, regardless of disability and teach all types of students (Armor et al., 1976; Ashton, 1984; Ashton Webb; 1986; Berman McLaughlin, 1977; Coladarci Breton, 1997; Gibson Dembo, 1984; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy, Hoy, 1998; Woolfolk, 2010). Many studies have noted that a teacher’s sense of efficacy can have a direct positive affect on student achievement (Anderson, Greene, Loewen, 1988; Ashton, 1984; Midgley, Feldlaufer, Eccles, 1989; Woolfolk, 2010) and is a principal factor impacting classroom effectiveness (Allinder, 1993; Ashton Webb, 1986; Brownell Pajares, 1999; Gibson Dembo, 1984; Pajares, 1992). There has been limited research as to the effect teacher efficacy has upon the students with ASDs. Research on general disability areas has shown that as a teacher’s personal efficacy increases, they become less anxious about including students with disabilities into their classrooms (Allinder, 1994; Soodak, Podell Lehman, 1998). Other research studies have found that teachers often lack confidence in their instructional skills when dealing with a student with a disability (Buell, Hallam, Gamel-McCormick, 1999; Center Ward 1987) thus decreasing their self efficacy. By identifying links between teacher efficacy and teacher attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs; more information can be provided to teachers to help them feel confident as well as successful in teaching students with ASDs within their classrooms. Another factor affecting teacher attitudes towards inclusion stems from their teacher preparation programs. Much of the current research on inclusion of students with disabilities has shown that general educators often feel confused when asked to make accommodations for students with disabilities within their classes (Lombard et al., 1998). Educators have indicated that they feel unprepared to implement inclusion as a result of a lack of preparation in education programs (Avramidis, Bayliss Burden, 2000; Bender Ukeje, 1989; Bender, Vail, Scott 1995; Betancourt-Smith 1994; Bruneau-Balderrama, 1997; Buell et al, 1999; Center Ward, 1987; Creal, 2000; Edelen-Smith, Prater, Sileo 1993; Evans, Townsend, Duchnowski, Hocutt, 1996; Ferguson, 1995; Forlin et al. 1999; Garfinkle Schwartz, 2002; Glass 1996; Grbich Sykes, 1992; Hammond Ingalls, 2003; Hastings, Hewes, Lock Witting, 1996; Johnston, Proctor, Corey 1994; King-Sears Cummings, 1996; Kwapy, 2004; Lanier Lanier 1996; Mastrop ieri Scruggs, 2000; Minke, Bear, Deemer Griffin, 1996; Nevin, Cohen, Salazar Marshall, 2007; Olson, 2003; O’Shea O’Shea, 1997; Pugach Seidl, 1995; Reber, Marshak, Glor-Scheib, 1995; Reed Monda-Amaya, 1995; Reitz Kerr, 1991; Salend, 2001; Schumm et al. 1994; Schumm Vaughn, 1992; Schuum Vaughn, 1995; Scruggs Mastropieri, 1996; Shanker, 1994; Sindelar, 1995; Singh, 2001; Slusher Saumell 1996; Snyder, 1990; Soodak, Podell Lehman, 1998; Swoboda, 2000; Tait Purdie 2000; Taylor, Richards, Goldstein, Schilit 1997; Vaughn, Schumm, Jallad, Wang, Reynolds, Walberg, 1994; Vaughn, Schumm, Jallad, Slusher, Saumell, 1996; Wang, Reynolds Walberg, 1994; Wanzenried, 1998). Currently, many educators remain insufficiently informed about the practice and theory of inclusion as well as the effect it has on all students within the classroom. Part of teacher preparation programs includes instilling a sense of knowledge and experience of working with students with disabilities. Those with experience working with students with disabilities tend to have more positive attitudes toward inclusion (Beh-Pajooh, 1991; Forlin, Fogarty Carroll, 1999; Gallagher 1985; Gregory, 1997; Hastings et al., 1996; Hastings Graham, 1995; LeRoy Simpson 1996; Pernell, McIntyre, Bader 1985; Sack 1998; Rees, Spreen Harnadek, 1991; Shoho, Katims, Wilks 1997). If teachers feel as though they are unprepared to accommodate students with disabilities; there needs to be a change in teacher preparation programs to ensure that all teachers feel confident and prepared to teach students with exceptionalities. By changing teacher education programs and adding more required coursework regarding students with exceptionalities, teachers should be better equipped to make accommodations and interventions for exceptional students. It is important to account for preservice teachers’ attitudes and beliefs in order to rectify any ill conceived notions about inclusion of children with ASDs. By identifying attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs, the inclusion process can be improved. By identifying factors that lead to negative attitudes towards inclusion and dispelling any myths associated with inclusion of students with ASDs, these students may be better served within the general education classroom. In addition, the attitudes towards inclusion may pinpoint weaknesses within teacher preparation programs. By identifying weaknesses, teacher education programs may be able to change or revise classes and curriculum to better meet the needs of future educators. Due to the increase in students identified with ASDs, laws mandating students be taught in the LRE, more general education teachers will have to make accommodations for students with ASDs within their classrooms. By identifying teacher attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs, teacher curriculum can be changed and in-services can be added to programming to improve teacher attitudes towards inclusion. Statement of the Problem This study will focus on self-efficacy of preservice teachers and their attitudes towards inclusion of students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs). Current research shows a range of attitudes towards inclusion of students with disabilities. There is a lack of research regarding teacher attitudes towards the various disability categories; specifically ASDs. Inclusion of students based on specific disability categories, ASDs, has been limited. With the increase in diagnosis of children with ASDs; there will likely be an increase in the placement of students with ASDs into general education classrooms. As a result, general education teachers will likely be responsible for teaching students with ASDs within their classrooms. By identifying attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs, the inclusion process can be improved. By identifying factors that lead to negative attitudes towards inclusion, such as teacher efficacy beliefs, and dispelling any myths associated with inclusion of students with ASDs, these students may be better served within the general education classroom. In addition, the attitudes towards inclusion may pinpoint weaknesses within teacher training programs. By identifying weaknesses, teacher education programs may be able to use this information to implement changes or revisions to classes and curriculum to better meet the needs of future educators. Purpose of the Study The primary purpose of this study is to investigate preservice teachers’ sense of efficacy and their attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs. Relationships between teacher attitudes towards inclusion, teacher efficacy, the type of student disability, teacher preparation programs, and demographic information will be explored. This study aims to identify preservice teacher attitudes toward inclusion of students with ASDs and their level of teacher efficacy. Additionally, it will explore factors that influence attitudes of preservice teachers toward inclusion of students with ASDs. By understanding the factors that influence preservice teacher attitudes, teacher preparation programs can better prepare teachers for students with exceptionalities, particularly ASDs within the classrooms. Research Questions What are preservice teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs within the general education classroom? Secondary Questions: What is the relationship between teacher efficacy and teacher attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs? What factors are related to preservice teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs? What is the relationship between the amount of college preparation courses and teacher attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs? Is there a relationship between having a special education background and attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs? Is there a relationship between having a special education background and teacher efficacy? Rationale Inclusive education integrates all students, regardless of disability, into the general education classroom. Integration of students with disabilities requires teachers to make accommodations and modifications for students in order for them to be successful within the general education classroom. The teacher’s level of efficacy has been found to affect their willingness to make modifications and accommodations for students with disabilities and thus affect their attitudes toward inclusion. This study will investigate preservice teachers’ sense of efficacy and its correlation with attitudes towards inclusion of students with ASDs. Current studies focus on the integration of students with disabilities without differentiating specific disability categories. This study will allow for differentiation of ASDs from the remaining disability categories. Findings from this study will be beneficial for teacher preparation programs. Bandura (1986, 1994, 1997) suggested that predications about behavior outcomes affect the individual’s goals, effort, and motivation to complete a task. Predications of behavior are highly influenced by a person’s self-efficacy (Woolfolk, 2010). Self-efficacy has been defined as the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1995). As a result, people are more likely to engage in behaviors that they believe they are capable of completing successfully. If a person believes they are able to complete an activity with success, they have high self-efficacy; conversely, if they do not feel they are able to complete certain behaviors successfully, they have low self-efficacy. Individuals tend to seek behaviors that they have success with and will put more effort and persistence to activities that they consider to be successful. Self-efficacy is also influenced by a person’s previou s successes or failures with an activity, feedback from others regarding their performance, and success or failure of other people around them (Woolfolk, 2010). For inclusion to be successful, teachers will need to observe a successful implementation of inclusion. In addition, they will have to feel confident in their own abilities to implement inclusion. This confidence will likely come from their teacher education training as well as role models indicating a successful implementation of inclusion. If a teacher does not believe he or she is able to implement inclusion within their classroom, the inclusion process is likely to fail. This has implications for the students within their classrooms. Students without disabilities are likely to model the teacher’s negative attitude towards inclusion and imitate behavior; at the same time, if the teacher has a positive attitude toward inclusion, the children would imitate that behavior. The self-efficacy of the teacher and their resulting actions has a large impact for the successful inclusion of students with ASDs within the general education class. Conceptual Framework This study is rooted in the theories of Albert Bandura, a cognitive theorist. His theories on social learning, social cognition, and self-efficacy have an influence this study. Bandura’s social cognitive theory and his construct of self efficacy (Bandura 1977) help explain how teacher’s attitudes towards inclusion would potentially have an effect upon the students within their classrooms. Bandura’s (1977) theory of self-efficacy is closely tied with teacher sense of efficacy. Teacher sense of efficacy is the belief that a teacher can reach all of his or her students, regardless of disability and teach all types of students (Woolfolk, 2010). Teacher sense of efficacy has a major impact upon the students within a teacher’s classroom. A high sense of teacher efficacy would indicate a teacher believes that he or she is capable to teach their students. Teachers with a high sense of teacher efficacy believe they can teach all of their students, regardless of disability (Woolfolk, 2010). Significance of the Study Due to revisions of federal regulations regarding placement of special education students within the LRE, children with disabilities are spending a majority of their day in the general education classroom. This study is an investigation of preservice teachers’ sense of efficacy and attitudes regarding inclusion of students with ASDs. It is valuable to determine attitudes of preservice teacher regarding the placement of students with ASDs due to research currently citing teacher attitudes strongly effect the success of students (Avramidis Norwich, 2002; Bacon Schultz, 1991; Chow Winzer, 1992; Coates, 1989; Cook, Semmel, Gerber, 1999; Good Brophy, 1997; Hayes Gunn; 1988; Idol, Nevin, Paolucci-Whitcomb, 1994; Roa Lim, 1999; Salend, 2001; Semmel, Abernathy, Butera, Lesar, 1991; Shade Stewart, 2000; Silberman, 1971; Van Reusen, Shoho, Barker, 2001; William Algozine, 1977). Previously, students who needed modifications or adjustments within the classroom were separated from the non-disabled students and placed in special education classrooms. Changes in the law have provided a directive that all students must be educated in the LRE, part of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142). This law states that individuals, regardless of the severity of their disabilities, are entitled to receive services from the public school systems at no cost to the parents (Public Law No. 94-142). With more students being placed in general education classrooms, it is important for future educators to have positive attitudes towards successful inclusion of students with ASDs. The results of this study may help in the development of effective educational curriculum at universities and colleges with teacher education programs. Education programs need to be committed to producing highly qualified and prepared future educators. This means being prepared to teach and understand the unique needs required by students with ASDs within the classroom. Results from this study may help preservice teachers to gain insight into their attitudes towards inclusion and their efficacy beliefs. Definitions and Terminology Accommodation: â€Å"A change in testing materials or procedures that enables students to participate in assessments in ways that reflect their skills and abilities rather than their disabilities† (Salvia, Ysseldyke Bolt, 2007, p. 682). Americans with Disabilities Act (Coladarci Breton): Public Law No. 10-325 (1 January 2009). â€Å"Prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, transportation, public access, local government, and telecommunications† (Woolfolk, 2010, p. 129). Autism: â€Å"Developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3 and ranging from mild to major† (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 613). Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs): A group of five related developmental disorders that share common core deficits or difficulties in social relationships, communication, and ritualistic behaviors; differentiated from one another primarily by the age of onset and severity of various systems; includes autistic disorder, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, childhood